Macedonian Struggle for Independence - Part V, by Risto Stefov

At the same time certain segments of Macedonian society were experiencing cultural prosperity other segments were taxed to death to pay for it and for the Empire's achievements of glory.

Even though Bulgarian expansion in the 10th century had halted, Macedonia was still occupied by both the Bulgar and Byzantine Empires.

With neither empire having access to resources outside of their own territories, both empires were dependent on internal means to support their administrations and military campaigns. Macedonia's economy at the time was mostly rural agriculture consisting of communes operated independently and co-operatively by clan and tribal relationships.Tribal lords, who for the most part were leaders of the co-operatives, ruled over the principalities.

As the need for more resources increased in order to support both empires, so did Byzantine and Bulgar control over Macedonian principalities. The Tribal lords who governed Macedonia independently or semi-independently soon became obedient tools of the occupiers. With time these lords were appointed and dismissed at the will of their rulers and only existed to serve them. In addition to the appointed lords, the Bulgars brought their own judges, tax collectors and church officials.

With the strengthening of Byzantine and Bulgar rule in Macedonia the decline of tribal self-government among the Macedonians was accelerated. At that time both the Byzantine and Bulgar Empires had well-formed feudal social relations. More and more agricultural co-operative communes were transformed into territorial communes, which accelerated the division of co-operatively held property. As a result of the clan-link breakdown in Macedonia, new and numerous feudal lords began to appear, taking over lands and people. Among them were foreigners and the church. Foreigners from other parts of the empire were granted Macedonian lands and privileges to use the Macedonian population to do their work. Church and monastery land holdings were formed and in time increased through gifts and by means of confiscations. Many Macedonian peasants lost their lands to the church due to defaulting on loans or to accusations of religious crimes.

The establishment of feudal social structures in Macedonia opened the way for mass exploitation not only of the feudal principalities but also of the free peasants who still lived in rural communities. The situation worsened around the middle of the tenth century when the profitable Bulgar wars of conquest came to an end. Having no other substantial sources of income to support the Bulgar military, administrative, court and church systems, the Bulgars turned to feudal exploitation. After everyone took their cut, the Macedonian peasant was left with nothing. Pushed to the brink of starvation, the Macedonian peasants revolted in what later became known as the Bogomil movement. Even though it was religious in nature, the Bogomil movement was predominantly a class struggle between the poor Macedonian peasant and his rich foreign rulers. The Bogomil movement was initiated in Macedonia by a Macedonian priest named Bogomil.

The Bogomil movement, in reality, was a rebellion against secular feudal lords, the state body and the empires themselves. Foreign rule brought higher taxes, more violence and additional punishment for the common people. Villages grew poorer and peasants lost their properties and means of livelihood. Many were taken prisoner and became serfs and slaves, sometimes on their own lands.

It is said that at the dawn of medieval Macedonia two great men arose, Kliment of Ohrid and a priest named Bogomil. The first was an educator and writer whose distinguished work is the pride of Macedonia. The second was an idealist whose heretical theory became a rallying cry for the oppressed in Macedonia and later throughout Europe.

Bogomil was the first to teach religious elements adopted from the Paulician and Marsalian teachings. These beliefs, which forbade taking sacraments, worshipping images, including the cross, and refuted much of the Bible, were probably introduced to Macedonia by the Armenian colonists deposited in Thrace by past Byzantine emperors. Many of the dualistic, anti-ecclesiastical and anti-feudal characteristics of these movements found their expression in the Bogomil ideology.

Under feudal ownership the peasants were fully dependent upon their feudal lords. Some historians argue that Kliment of Ohrid's visit to the Bulgar capital and his resignation as bishop a few months before his death was in response to the violence and devastation the Bulgars inflicted on the people in the territory of the Bishopric of Velika.

The swift spread of the Bogomil movement prompted Petar, the Bulgar king, to take measures for its suppression but he did not succeed. Bogomilism was strongest in the territory defined by the triangle of the Vardar River, Ohrid and Mt. Shar. His intervention, however, did cause the Bogomils much suffering. But even the cruelest of methods did not stop the insurrection, which in time spread and became a general people's movement. Petar's death and the Russian campaigns against the Bulgars drastically reduced Bulgar control over Macedonia allowing the Bogomil movement to flourish, at least for a while.

In the meantime, eager to exploit the situation, a new force of power was emerging in Macedonia. In 976 AD, the year emperor John (Tsimisces) died, the four Komitopuli brothers, David, Moses, Aaron and Samoil raised a rebellion. With the collapse of Bulgar rule and in the absence of Byzantine forces which were leading a campaign in Syria, the rebellion was successful and the brothers decided to rule their newly established state jointly. Unfortunately, the joint rule did not last long as three of the brothers died one after another leaving Samoil as the sole heir of the new state.

According to military historian Vanche Stojchev, the Komitopuli brothers organized two rebellions, one in 969 and another in 976. According to John Scyilitzes who was one of the best sources of that period, the Komitopuli organized the first rebellion against the Bulgarian brothers Boris and Roman, sons of Emperor Petar and the second rebellion against the Byzantine Empire. (Vanche Stojchev. "Military History of Macedonia". Military academy. Skopje, 2004. Page 63)

According to Byzantine sources, Nikola the father and the four brothers belonged to a class of prominent and powerful dignitaries called bolyars who were very influential in Petar's Bulgarian court. Nikola was a member of the royal council and served Petar faithfully until the end of his life.

As with many prominent Macedonians the identity of the Komitopuli family is contested by various academics. The Bulgarians claim that Nikola and his wife Ripsimia were Bulgarians. Historians Prokic and Petrovic on the other hand claim the Komitopuli were royals from the tribe of Brsjaks. Yet other sources believe that Nikola and his family originated from the Persian colonists who were moved to Macedonia by Emperor Theophilus. The strongest arguments however are in favour of Nikola and Ripsimia being Armenians in origin because of their children's names David, Moses, Aaron and Samoil being Armenian names which are used in the Armenian Church to this day. The name Ripsimia, which in Armenian is Hripsime, is also a respected Armenian name.

According to Armenian sources, Samoil and his brothers were born in the Derjan canton in Armenia and were brought to Macedonia by Emperor Basil I the Macedonian, as a regiment to fight against the Bulgarians but during the first battle they changed sides and joined the Bulgarians. Armenian sources also say that David, Moses, Aaron and Samoil are actually Biblical names given to prominent people such as patriarchs, princes, priests, philosophers, etc. (Vanche Stojchev. "Military History of Macedonia". Military academy. Skopje, 2004. Page 63)

Regardless of the origin or ethnic backgrounds of the Komitopuli, what matters here is that they seized power from both the Bulgars and Byzantines and formed a state in the heartland of Macedonia and later turned it into a vast empire that rivaled that of Philip II.

Initially Samoil raised his army from the Macedonian population and by the end of the 10th century he conquered the southern half of Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Albania and most of the Greek territory. He created a large Macedonian state, which extended from the Black Sea to the Adriatic Sea and from the Sava River to the Ionian Sea.

Samoil proclaimed himself Tzar (Emperor) and was crowned by the Roman Pope. His first capital was Prespa and then Ohrid. Ohrid also became the center of the Macedonian Ohrid Archbishopric.

Samoil's state is of great significance to the history of the Macedonian people because it established the foundations for a separate and independent nation. What fueled the creation of such a nation were the Macedonian people who at the time found themselves exploited by all sides and sought their struggle for independence through the rebellion lead by the Komitopuli brothers and then by Samoil and his successors.

The war between the Byzantines and the Macedonians lasted for 48 years from 970 to 1018 during which time thirteen major battles and a number of minor ones were fought.

Samoil's military, political and strategic mission was to create a strong and independent Macedonian state. He started accomplishing that mission immediately after Byzantium had conquered the eastern parts of Bulgaria.

The territory on which Samoil established the medieval Macedonian state was almost the same size as the state of the ancient Macedonian King Philip II which infuriated Basil II who initiated the first campaign in 995 against Samoil.

It was by no accident that Samoil received his strongest support from the Macedonian heartland defined by the triangle of the Vardar River, Ohrid and Mt. Shar. Samoil's success was fueled by the Bogomil movement and its distaste for foreign rule. In Macedonia the Bogomil movement was particularly influential in the creation of favourable conditions for a liberation uprising and the formation of an independent state. Samoil took full advantage of the situation and established the Macedonian state.

Samoil was not a Bogomil himself but accepted Bogomilism and its right to exist in his kingdom.

Samoil's kingdom had completely different domestic and foreign policies than his neighbours with a number of capitals including Prespa, Ohrid, Prilep, Bitola, Pronishte and Setin which he used from time to time, all located inside the heartland of Macedonia.

Very little is known about the socio-economic conditions and organization of Samoil's state. It is likely that the majority of people were peasants, mostly freemen, but those working on the feudal estates were either serfs or churchmen. The serfs worked on both secular and church lands while churchmen worked exclusively on church lands. Being of a slightly better social class, the churchmen were exempt from heavy taxes but, on the other hand, they were obliged to donate extra labour, probably in community service, in lieu of taxes.

The noble class in Samoil's state was made up mostly of feudal lords and aristocrats who were allied behind Samoil and supported his policies. After his death the alliances began to erode and the nobles went their separate ways in pursuit of their own interests.

Slavery was rarely practiced but on occasion slaves were captured and sold, usually outside the kingdom. The main source of slaves was prisoners of war.

Most of Samoil's income came from imperial land-holdings, sale of livestock, judicial fines and military plunder. Samoil's treasury contained many valuables including gold and money. Having no coins of his own minted, the currency circulated in Samoil's kingdom was that of the Byzantine Empire.

As for his military makeup, Samoil was supreme commander and enlisted his forces almost exclusively from his own kingdom. He had an enormous army consisting of both infantry and cavalry. Samoil was an able strategist who personally took part not only in planning but also in executing battles. For the most part, Samoil's weaponry and military dress was similar to the Byzantine. His soldiers wore a short outer tunic, trousers and a shirt of steel. They also wore a helmet with a pivoting extension which could be lowered down to the chin to protect the warrior's face. Each soldier was armed with a defensive shield, long spear and sword. Other accessories included bugles and standards. Besides his regular army, Samoil also employed his own bodyguards. Samoil had no navy or any type of war vessel.

The official language of Samoil's kingdom was Macedonian although Koine was also used occasionally as the language of diplomacy at the imperial palace.

Samoil built some of the most significant buildings in his kingdom including the Basilica of St. Achilles, his various palaces and a number of churches situated in the southern parts of his kingdom.

The famous and historic Archbishopric of Ohrid was created during Samoil's reign. Initially the Archbishopric was seated in Prespa but when Samoil moved to Ohrid, he brought it with him. Ohrid became his capital as well as his religious center. After its consolidation, the new archbishop was given authority over all bishops who fell under Samoil's jurisdiction. Unfortunately the Byzantines refused to recognize the Archbishop of Ohrid, probably because the Roman church which crowned Samoil had consecrated it. During Samoil's rule the Macedonian church was quite popular and the clergy, especially the bishops, enjoyed their privileged positions.

By August 1018, Basil II succeeded in destroying the last remnants of Samoil's forty-two year reign (976-1018) of his Macedonian kingdom.

Once Basil II conquered Macedonia, he made it into a Byzantine province and sub-divided it into themes. He then installed a large army to keep the peace.

After Samoil's death, the Archbishopric of Ohrid was subordinated to Byzantine authority and incorporated into the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Macedonia was reorganized into thirty-two eparchies. The Bulgarian, Serbian and Albanian eparchies were also incorporated into the Ohrid Archbishopric. An Archbishop and the Church Synod were given supreme authority over the Ohrid Archbishopric. The Synod met in Ohrid once a year to elect new bishops and discipline clergy accused of various breaches and misconduct.

The Archbishop of Ohrid was no longer elected by the Synod, as it had been under Samoil's rule, but was appointed by Constantinople and confirmed by the Byzantine Emperor. The Archbishop remained autocephalous but was subject to the Byzantine state and church authorities. He was a member of the principal administration of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, attended its sittings, defended the interests and prestige of the Byzantine Church and participated in the resolution of disagreements with the western Church.

Basil II allowed the higher clergy of the Archbishopric to retain some privileges. By doing so he gained their support in strengthening Byzantine rule in Macedonia. To appear sympathetic he also appointed John of Debar, a Macedonian, head of the Archbishopric.

After Basil II's death in 1025 his successor Leo attempted to tighten control over the Macedonian church by replacing the Macedonian language with Koine. Having encountered opposition, in 1037 he removed John of Debar, one of the strongest supporters of the Macedonian language. Henceforth the Archbishops of Ohrid and the bishops of the churches in the Ohrid Archbishopric were regularly elected from the ranks of the Koine speaking clergy. The lower clergy remained Macedonian speaking because it was closest to the Macedonian people.

When Ohrid came under Byzantine control the Koine speaking hierarchs began to eradicate all documents written in Macedonian. Many manuscripts which had been preserved in Ohrid were destroyed. In the churches Macedonian liturgy began to be preached in adaptations translated from Koine. The Macedonian names of rivers, towns, etc. were also replaced by either classical Koine or Latin names. The Archbishopric of Ohrid was slowly becoming a Koine speaking institution designed to destroy the Macedonian traditions, which had been nurtured over the years. Macedonian literacy could not, however, be totally destroyed. The adaptation of Koine did not succeed in taking any deep roots among the people who continued to communicate in their native Macedonian language.

The majority of the Macedonian population after Samoil's death became subservient to the feudal lords. Serfs formed the basic category of the tied feudal population. Serfs were allowed to retain their hereditary holdings but under the authority of the feudal lords. Below the serfs were the landless people. They lived and worked on feudal estates or on land set aside for them by the community. Below the landless people were the servants of the feudal lords. Their property was part of the feudal lord's personal demesne and they were personally bound to their lords who had the authority to sell them together with their land.

Below the servants were the slaves. Unlike classical slaves who had no rights at all, with time and services rendered, these slaves gradually received small holdings as well as certain rights from their feudal lords. The slave class consisted almost exclusively of those who either could not pay the state taxes or those who had rebelled against their exploiters or the state.

The churchmen, on the other hand, were a separate class of people. The churchmen who owned land enjoyed certain privileges which had been granted to the church by the state.

Like the churchmen, the artisans who were employed on feudal estates were a distinct and more privileged class of the tied population.

With regard to taxation, the Byzantines had instituted three types of feudal rent known as work or corvee, kind and monetary. Unfortunately the Macedonian population was burdened with all three types. The work rent or corvee was applicable to the entire population tied to or obliged to work for a feudal lord. The proportion of this unpaid labour was not defined so in times of need, particularly in the summer months, several days of a person's workweek were devoted to it. The majority of this corvee was dedicated to repairing or building fortresses, constructing roads and bridges, building boats and baking bread for the army.

The rent in kind, which varied from individual to individual, was paid with a variety of "finished products" made for the state and for the feudal lords. The customary practice of giving gifts to officials was a particularly heavy burden on the population.

Taxes in kind were also exacted by the church. The Ohrid Church, according to its established canon, exacted taxes in kind from the entire population.

Monetary rent was also exacted on a large scale during this period. After the tax reforms of 1040, regular state taxes were required to be paid with money. With the growing need to pay monetary taxes, a strong stimulus was induced to trade goods for money. This, in many ways, was good for the economy and development of feudalism. Unfortunately the transition became another burden on the Macedonian peasant population. After the feudal lords were awarded rights to collect state taxes, abuse was not far behind. Many took advantage of their position of authority and exacted extra taxes for themselves above and beyond those prescribed by law.

Besides regular taxes, Macedonians were also obliged to pay various supplementary taxes, like judicial fines, toll tax for crossing rivers, fishing tax, water-mill tax and marriage tax. As a marriage tax the groom was obliged to pay his bishop a gold piece and the bride twelve ells (15 meters) of linen.

By 1040 the people had become very discontent with Byzantine rule and the situation in Macedonia was reaching a boiling point.

To be continued.

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You can contact the author at rstefov@hotmail.com